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RESTORING LEATHER CASTORS
By Michael Barrington

The origin of the castor goes back to certainly the early 16th Century when, 'baby cages' and invalid chairs are known to have been equipped with wheels. They were used in England certainly towards the end of 17th Century and by 1690 there was an established castor-making trade in London. Castors, to begin with, were simple hardwood wheels mounted on horizontal axles but by 1700 vertical spindles mounting jaws in which horizontal axles and wheels were carried were in use. The wheels were of wood, probably boxwood which, by the 1730s, tended to be replaced by leather wheels and then brass wheels.1
Leather wheels are quieter than both wood and metal and are kinder to wooden flooring. They are generally fitted between brass jaws either in the hidden plate form or the more usually seen vertical spindle cup castor. As frequently happens, the spindles, rust or the holes in which they are mounted, wear and the wheels seize. Consequently the castor wheel will not follow the direction of push of the piece of furniture and it suffers serious wear against the floor. This happens with brass wheels as well as leather ones and if not remedied in time, flats wear on the wheels when they cannot rotate anyway. The wheels have to be replaced, probably as well as their spindles.
The leather castor is made up of a number of hard leather washers. I say 'hard' in that the leather is 'bridle leather' which is taken from areas either side of and close to the animal's spine and is indeed the leather from which most saddlery is made. Leather from the flanks and belly, used more in upholstery, is too soft.
The image left shows a set of six socket castors from a mahogany framed settee in which the top three are in an acceptable state while the lower three have all been seized and consequently flattened.
The image on the right shows three spindles, the two left-hand having square bodies.
The photograph below shows the original washers after they have been disassembled.

The photograph below right shows some replacement leather washers which have been stamped concentrically with two sizes of hole punch one 7/8" for the OD and one 1/4" for the axle.
The new spindle (shown below left) is either turned or, and probably better, is of square section and is drilled to accept its axle. At one end a fixed and rounded shoulder is turned. A complimentary end washer with the same profile is turned ready for closure of the wheel.
Enough leather washers are mounted on the spindle to achieve the correct wheel width. When the required length of washers has been assembled on the spindle, the brass closing end washer of the same profile as the fixed shoulder is either screwed or riveted in place. It is necessary to make a jig to compress the washers in a vice before fitting the brass end-washer. As the washers are assembled on the spindle, they can be glued which will make for a more solid construction. I would favour a PVA adhesive for this, largely because it will stick to the metal rather better than animal glue which would undoubtedly be more correct although reversibility is not really an issue in this case. Longevity of the wheel is however a serious consideration.
The three assembled wheels ready to mount in the forks. These have been skimmed lightly in the lathe with each wheel mounted on a tapered arbour. Skimming brought the wheel diameter down to 3/4". The finished wheels are oval in shape which makes the castor more efficient. Straight cylindrical wheels are similar to running on flat tyres. The skimming tool has to be extremely sharp with good front rake or slope under the cutting edge and skimming should be done at not less than 1000 rpm. The wheels pictured have yet to be oil stained before finally being spun in the lathe and wax-burnished with carnauba ready for mounting on steel axles riveted into the original brass forks, some of which had to be bushed, silver-soldered and re-drilled because of the excessive wear by former seized axles and also split or fractured fork arms.
You may find that the original castor bobbin can be re-used; in which case you should do so. In the example used here however, the end washers had been flatted along the chords of the worn leather. You do need to have the full metal end washers to make a reliable wheel.

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THE RE-UPHOLSTERY OF A PAIR OF BERGERES

THE RE-UPHOLSTERY OF A PAIR OF BERGERES
By Bert Chapman MBE and Michael Barrington

This pair of English made bergère chairs, made in the late 18th Century or possibly early 19th, had been substantially altered, the gilded frames damaged and the upholstery poorly executed. The standard of the frame construction is good but they had been re-gilded without interlagio over the frame joints and there was much consequent cracking in those areas with deterioration of the gilded surfaces which were fairly knocked about overall, down to the bare wood and, in places, beyond . Unlike the right-hand picture these chairs were built to show the two vertical members and horizontal rail of the back which were gilded on their rear surfaces and sides. This was not apparent until the upholstery was removed. The previous gilder had taken the vertical members through the gesso stage followed by the upholsterer who covered them up. Research found pictures of the correctly exposed and gilded back frames and this is the route we suggested and which was approved. The frame pictured below has been re-gilded, this time with interlagio support and the two vertical members and one horizontal member are gilded on the rear and sides. This is plainly to be seen in the first sketch below.
Interlagio is a thin fabric covering applied to sound joints during the application of gesso. Traditionally silk is used but a fine lawn or sea-island cotton is just as good. Beware of using a material past its best which will be weak and liable to part as the joint flexes. The interlagio is pasted over the joints with a first coat of thin gesso and subsequently covered with thicker gesso as work proceeds.
The interlagio material must not be too heavy, or it will be difficult to cover in the gesso coatings. Above all the interlagio must not be so near to the surface that when the gesso is cut back or carved (also known as cutting) that it suddenly appears—so go for a really fine material. The chairs were water gilded and the highlights burnished.
A surprise was the discovery that the cushion covers are of hand-stitched kid leather and presumably original. Bert, had come across five or six examples of white kid being used for cushion cases and quoted that King George II had a travelling bed with a ticking of kid leather. Next comes the upholstery which, in view of the restoration of the back panels, required a new approach. and I asked Bert to write a piece on the proper way to do this which now follows :
Upholstery of Bergère Chairs
Below are two sketches showing how the outside back panel, framed between the two gilded vertical members, is placed and the method of fixing a length of cane 10mm above the seat platform to allow the various stuffing covers to pass underneath before tacking to the top of the seat rail.
The top sketch shows how the back of the chairs will look with the seat cover coming through under the horizontal rail. The centre panel upholstery meets the seat upholstery snugly showing no light.
Many thanks to Bert for these two very clear sketches which should be useful references to any reader faced with the same problem.

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THE CARE AND CONSERVATION OF LONG CASE CLOCKS
By Michael Barrington

With the exception of the very finest and rarest, the longcase clock is, in comparison with other types of furniture, grossly undervalued. This seems especially relevant when one considers how advanced the design and making of clock movements was in an era which began some 200 and more years before the invention of the steam engine, electricity, steelmaking and, particularly, reliable means of accurate measurement and standardization in such areas as screw threads. Add to this phenomenon the fact that clocks made 200 years ago are still going and keeping time at standards acceptable for most domestic purposes and the undervaluation of old clocks becomes more obvious. It seems reasonable therefore to say that at least we should treat the clock with respect, maintaining its working through care and maintaining its integrity of design.
The Victorians were notable for their desecration of both clock movements and cases, sometimes in pursuit of "improved" design and performance, sometimes to meet changes in fashion but also through sheer ignorance and poor craftsmanship. Unfortunately these problems persist and a great deal of damage is still done to both cases and movements. It was in the latter part of the 19th century when "antique collecting" became a serious hobby and business, that the trade of "antique furniture restorer" was born. The trade has burgeoned ever since, particularly in times of inflated valuations of antiques, with an accompanying proliferation of unsympathetic and downright bad restoration work and little or no regard for conservation which is a comparatively modern post World War 2 development. Clockcases, and particularly country clockcases, seem to have borne the brunt of bad workmanship and it is principally in such clocks that we find the worst evidence. Finer quality clocks too have not been exempt from poor treatment but their usually obvious superior quality has perhaps afforded them some degree of protection.
Many clock repairers/restorers do not profess to cater for clockcase conservation and restoration, much in the same way as not every clockmaker made their own cases. Casework has always tended to be a separate trade and is nowadays definitely the preserve of the furniture conservator/restorer. It is imperative that the case restorer has a thorough working knowledge of how clocks work for it is he who is responsible for ensuring their correct environment for correct and long lived working.

Major Alterations to Clock Cases
Before embarking on examples of typical damage found in longcase locks, it is worth looking briefly at some history. The revolutionary pendulum clock pioneered in Britain by Ashasuerus Fromanteel in about 1650, with technology imported from Holland, was a breakthrough in time keeping which certainly in the lantern clocks of earlier years was more an approximation than a science! Only very wealthy people could afford to commission clocks and this was often clearly done as a statement of status. Consequently clocks were highly valued and the owners, or chosen henchmen, were the only ones allowed to wind or otherwise attend the clock. To make this a reality, great lengths were pursued to ensure security of the clock. Hoods were generally of the rising type, sliding vertically on the backboard engaging in grooves in the hood carcase sides (Fig 1).
A spoon catch (A) enabled the hood to be secured by shutting the trunk door, which was locked and presumably openable only by the keyholder.

The hinged opening hood door came later, probably as a result of generally lower house ceiling heights demanded by economics and perhaps fashion. In houses with lowered ceilings, hoods could not be lifted, since they required at least 2 feet of free air above the clock. The answer for these clocks was therefore to cut off the front of the hood, making an instant door which might be secured either by a separate door lock (a cut-cupboard or staple lock), no lock at all or a neat spring-loaded catch (Fig 1B) operated by a cord hanging down inside the trunk, thus maintaining the single point access of the rising hood clock. Often the saw marks of the hood cutting were left untrimmed and the grooves in the hood sides left unfilled and, hopefully the mechanism for holding the hood both up and open (Fig 1C) and lastly the spoon catch have not been removed. Few fully complete examples remain but certainly some evidence of the rising hood usually remains intact. Those interested in the history of such clocks can usually find the evidence, or parts of it, and may detect such desecrations as filling in or otherwise disguising the sliding grooves and covering up the saw marks of hood-cutting with veneer, since planing would probably render the door frame too thin.
The next and probably the most horrible alteration to longcases of all vintages and origins is that of shortening them to fit into a particular room. However, because of the status of the clock as a piece of family furniture which may have passed through several generations, it is easy to see why some people will go to such lengths to get their heirloom clock into a room with low ceilings. The advice that they might either sell the clock and buy a shorter one or even move house will generally not be appreciated! A tall city-made clock will stand between about 7ft and 8ft 6ins which can be some 12 to 18 inches more than cottage or modern ceiling heights of little over 6 to 7 feet respectively. This is a lot to lose and will certainly not be achieved by just removing the brass finials, balls etc from the hood top or even lopping off the bottom of the plinth. It is not uncommon to see holes cut in ceilings and floors to accomodate a particularly precious clock but it is an option which will not appeal to everyone, although it does preserve the clock's integrity and incidentally its monetary value.
Unfortunately, sinking a clock into the floor, which may be damp, can have serious effects on the welfare of the plinth. Lowering the plinth height will almost certainly destroy the proportions of the clock and make it look stunted, and if it is a marquetry case, much of the picture on the plinth will be lost. However, shortened plinths are relatively easy to restore to their proper height but will be expensive if new marquetry has to be designed and cut. It is essential that the restorer knows enough about clockcase design and does not embark on what may be a serious alteration quite unrelated to the original design of the clock and there are many such examples.
Another shortening option, in which the trunk length is altered, is worse still and usually signals the end of the clock case as a collectable item.
The result is that the proportions of the whole case are ruined, necessitating a complete re-build of the trunk which, however well executed, destroys the integrity of the clock. Examples of both trunk shortening and the ravages of damp and woodworm are shown in Figs 2 and 3. which depict the lower backboard and one plinth side respectively. This marquetry fronted clock had suffered numerous abuses through both alterations in height and attempts to repair wet rot and furniture beetle damage.
To continue, evidently the amputation of the trunk was not enough and the hood (4) was attacked. It is likely that the original hood was little if any higher than the ballustraded hat that has been attached, probably in the 19th Century, so one wonders whether this was done either out of ignorance of the most likely design of a normal moulded (cross grain) and perhaps missing original pediment or in an attempt to "improve" the look of the clock. Anyway the result is dreadful and would require a complete rebuild to restore the hood to anything like its original form and the ebonised pillars would need to be replaced with spiral twists (note the quarter section twists at the back which are original). Again this would be unlikely to a cost-effective exercise.
The last point about this poor clock is the shape and position of the lenticle. The lenticle (Fig 5) is filled with either plain or pot glass and the pendulum bob should be directly behind it, flashing through the glass as it swings. Since the pendulum is of set length, so must the lenticle be in a set position.
This one is in line with the pendulum bob but it is decidedly off-centre in the layout of the door's marquetry which suggests that either the door started its life without a lenticle or that the cutting of the trunk was done with little regard for the final position of the pendulum bob in relation to the trunk door.
Lastly, the quality of the lenticle frame is absurdly amateur, so perhaps the whole sequence of operations was done by an enthusiastic amateur or, possibly, the door came from another clock, because there is no evidence of either hinges or lock having been moved, but there is very little space between the top and bottom edges of the marquetry and the door moulding, so perhaps the door has been cut both ends.
Typical Damage to Clock Cases and Some Ideas on Conservation and Restoration
Backboards
The backboard is the clock case's spine and everything in the case is attached to it in some way. It is therefore important for the stability and longevity of the clock that the backboard does its job properly. Where the backboard bottom is rotten or worm-eaten, it needs to be treated by either consolidating the unsound timber or cutting it out and replacing it. Consolidation of degraded wood is generally practical either with the use of injected resin based or other consolident material or by steeping it in hot glue which means submerging it in thin glue size and letting it simmer until all air has been driven out of the flight holes. This latter method of glue consolidation is impractical because of the size of the backboard. However, backboards are thin, at the most say half an inch in thickness, consequently often much material is missing, either because rotten wood has fallen away or wood has disappeared as "frass" which is the wood dust or regurgitations of the woodworm larva. In such very common cases the best way forward generally is to replace the degraded areas of wood. This can be done crudely with a straight butt joint and a wood strap, usually on the inside, which is in danger of interfering with the drop of the weights.
A better method and certainly neater, is to half-lap the boards new with old, using old wood.
However, a better method in my view, is to use what is known as a coppersmith's or 'shark's tooth' joint (Fig 7). This has the advantage of a larger gluing area, albeit on slanting end-grain (which is better than pure end-grain) and because it is less noticeable than the horizontal lap joint. It is in fact very strong if well executed. There is no point in going overboard in concealing the joint which becomes very much a part of the clock's history and is a perfectly legitimate and sympathetic piece of restoration. The picture at Fig 8. illustrates the 'sharks Teeth' method of repair of backboards together with appropriate new side pieces behind the plinth.
Plinths and Feet
While many clocks stand on plinths of some kind, an equal number stand on feet and the 17th century cases are often on four bun feet. Clock design is as regional as that of country chairs and dressers. It behoves both owner and restorer to research what is correct for a particular clock. This work is both interesting and rewarding. Sadly far too much of "this will look nice" goes on in clock case restoration. This is one of many examples which demand that a restorer must know the history of the pieces he/she works on.
Doors
The shape of the trunk door varies hugely in clock design. The earlier clocks were somewhat austere and had oblong doors with square corners and often applied decoration either of veneer or marquetry or, of course, lacquer. Invariably the walnut cases had cross grained mouldings or banding to the door edges or surrounds. The cross-grain moulding warps delightfully with age and is, as on all walnut furniture of the 17th and early 18th Centuries, generally a tell-tale mark of authenticity. I say "generally" because walnut is one of the easiest woods to "fake" and much excellent "reproduction work" was done by skilled cabinetmakers in the 19th century and one can be easily fooled! In passing, this is a factor which deters many Antique Dealers from stocking walnut pieces.
What does not fool anyone is the replacement of cross grain with long grain and you can easily find examples of this. Few clock cases had handles on the doors, this was to come in the 20th Century. Most doors are opened by their keys and there will be either a flush brass escutcheon lining the keyhole or a brass plate escutcheon nailed (not screwed) on the surface. Doors usually have applied edge-mouldings or lip mouldings and have to have special cranked hinges to allow the moulding to 'clear' the carcase when the door is opened. Such hinges may be of iron or brass and the former is usual in 17th and early 18th Century and country cases. The iron hinges of the 17th century were nailed and later brass hinges were more usually secured with iron screws. It should be said here that this is about the only place in which screws would have been used in a clock case. Nails were of the forged flathead clout variety for securing hinges etc. Elsewhere iron 'cut' nails and sprigs would have been used, especially in securing the backboard.
Single board doors, which are common to country clocks, may be cleated top and bottom as in Fig 4. to counteract warping but it is as common to see uncleated doors which are often warped. The heart side of the one-piece door is generally to the outside so that the door warps towards the inside of the clock trunk (away from the heart). This fault is better than having the door sides warp outwards, known as "Smiling"). Veneered and marquetry doors and especially lacquered doors, were generally cleated and quite often this shows through the applied surface where the substrates have moved. Warping is a difficult fault to restore and indeed, because it has happened through the natural movement of the wood, there is a strong argument for doing nothing. Racking, that is warping accross the diagonal, is quite common and largely incurable, The repositioning of one hinge may compensate but is unattractive. Whilst on this subject, the principle of minimum intervention is a basic rule of conservation which all good conservator-restorers should observe quite religiously. Before we leave "Doors", the 20th century flat-head key looks inappropriate on all antique furniture and particularly in clock doors where it is very obvious. A flat-head key can easily be filed into a nice replica old fashioned key bow and I believe it worth doing; it certainly does not degrade the clockcase or its integrity. Alternatively a new key can be made or a traditional bow silver soldered to the existing shaft.
Hoods
Hood door frames are either half-lap jointed or, in the best work, are tenoned. Often veneer or marquetry covers the joints. The hingeing of the hood door is either on iron pins top and bottom, often located in the ends of a door pillar or, because a door with pillars attached must swing well clear of the hood carcase, special swan neck hinge plates are used to enable the door to move well out of the way of the hood sides and avoid a collision. The twists of the pillars, if fitted, may be handed (right and left) on some hoods and it is a nice feature which is surprisingly obvious to the viewer. More commonly the twists are both of one hand, usually right-handed. The pillars, of whatever design are usually repeated at the back of the hood with quarter-sections of the same design and hand as those at the front.
The glass in the door must not be modern float glass and certainly not the non-reflective picture glass! Old handmade cylinder glass is becoming more difficult to find and, to my mind, the replica material of today is not that convincing and neither is it thin enough. The restorer must go out and buy some old 19th or early 20th Century pictures in the local market to build up a stock of old glass. Modern float glass shouts at you and, I believe ruins the look of an old clock. The glass is almost always puttied into the rebates of the door-frame and given a coat of varnish or shellac. Lastly, the construction of hood sides is interesting but not obvious to everyone. In hoods with rectangular side windows, the sides are generally made of three pieces which quite neatly provides the window. In oak and mahogany clocks the grain of the three pieces of wood is usually vertical, whilst in walnut examples the centre section is turned on its side with the grain running horizontally, sandwiched between two vertical neighbours. This latter construction facilitates the making of the small integral mouldings round the window which will all be cut along the grain, which in turn defies the general practice in walnut furniture of producing mouldings across the grain! The best examples however, will probably have small cross-grain mouldings applied to each of the four sides of the windows.
Seat Board
This is the horizontal board which carries the movement and to which the movement is usually secured by two hooks with screwed shanks which either hook over the two bottom movement pillars or long screws. It is always very obvious when a seat board has been renewed - a practice which should be avoided where possible. The seat board usually rests on the tops of the two side members of the trunk which extend into the hood space above the collar. These side members are often of thin section and become damaged to an extent when the seat board and hence the movement are neither safe nor stable. It is important for the running of the clock that the seatboard should be firm and carry the weight of the movement with the weights and pendulum as well as supporting the extra stress caused during winding, however carefully done. The seat-board needs to be level and parallel with the ground.
The most sympathetic way to restore badly damaged side members is to make replacement extensions which are jointed in such a way that there is no interference with the clock lines and the fitting of the hood which slides horizontally above the collar. The seat-board normally rests on the side pieces and is held there by the weight of the whole movement or it may be screwed. Its positioning is entirely dependent on the correct, level and central presentation of the clock face/dial through the hood front. The side members of the case in Fig 9. have been extended upwards using half-lapped jointing from just above the inside of the collar. It is most important to try to retain the original seat-board and the only usual reason for not being able to is if the board is severely twisted or 'racked' and cannot be made to sit flat.
Finishes and Decoration
Cracked marquetry on an unstable substrate is common. Part of the joy of old marquetry is the roughness of surface which develops naturally as veneers move and begin to curl very slightly at the edges. Loose and missing marquetry must be restored, but beware of those who would try to resurface it and damage or even entirely remove that special "unflat patination" so typical of old marquetry work.
Damaged lacquerwork or japanning is not as easily ignored because it is often very unattractive, showing the white gesso coat underneath. Restoration and conservation of these finishes is achievable without seriously altering the object's integrity and it is arguable that a properly restored lacquer or japanned finish, albeit involving major work, achieves more in the preservation of integrity than leaving it merely stabilized but seriously degraded in its appearance. This is an area in which the conservation and restoration arguments are fiercest! Restoration of lacquerwork is a very specialist area and involves serious artistic skill. Urushi, the basic material of lacquer is 'unfriendly' to work with and requires much skill and experience. It should not be confused with western japanned work. Good lacquerwork is valuable and should be treated really carefully by a person who specializes in the skill - not many do! Finally, not all furniture conservator-restorers will necessarily have detailed knowledge of clock case design and history. It is as well to satisfy yourself that the person you choose to look after your clock case has the necessary experience. It is usual, anyway in BAFRA, for members with particular experience and skills, to advertise the fact.

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MY BAFRA ASSESSMENT

MY BAFRA ASSESSMENT
By Michael Goater

I subjected myself to "The Assessment" for full BAFRA membership three years ago, so I have had time now to assess my “Assessment”. Inevitably this is, therefore a personal account, but everybody comes to it in a different way and I am especially envious of those who have completed one of the courses available in restoration and conservation. They have a positive advantage.
Why did I want to join BAFRA? Well at that time I had run my furniture restoration business for fifteen years full time. Before that I had been a schoolmaster, musical instrument maker and lecturer at the Welsh School of Musical Instrument Making and Repair and the London College of Furniture. I have always had a passion for furniture and furniture design, and I suspect that one of the attractions of marriage was the opportunity to design and make all my own pieces! Having established the business - a very steep learning curve and one in which we should help students far more – the inevitable question arose: “Ok, but how good am I?” I always made a point of trying to see other restorer’s work, always went to antiques fairs to have a close look at the furniture. Seeing that I was paying such enthusiastic attention was a great disappointment to a lot of dealers! Needless to say I brought every book I could find on furniture history or restoration, so I seemed to know a bit about the subject and was getting some nice pieces to work on. I particularly enjoyed talking to other restorers but they seemed few and far between, and the demands of business don’t make this easy. I looked around to find some association of like-minded people, and very soon made my first phone call to BAFRA.
Apologising to your bank manager for the slight overdraft was nothing to how I felt when making that first call, but I was soon reassured by the friendly response – more about work than BAFRA. The forms were quickly on their way from which I could judge if my business and me might be up to it. That was the first lesson. BAFRA was as concerned about the standard of service you give to your customer as it was about your personal skills as a restorer. The forms stated the aims of the association as well as the requirements for different levels of membership. Feeling slightly chastened I phoned my contact again and spent some time discussing the criteria. Again there was encouragement and I decided to go for a full membership assessment, knowing that if I wasn’t quite up to it I could get a student membership, benefiting from all that BAFRA offers. While I knew that BAFRA was exactly what I wanted to join I wasn’t over confidant of getting in. However I filled in the forms, arranged for references and was delighted when I learned that I was to be assessed for possible full membership.
Very quickly I looked again at the criteria for assessment and felt the nearest I have ever got to having withdrawal symptoms. However, my cheque had been sent off and I was committed. I looked around the workshop and ticked off what I had in the way of equipment, insurance and security etc., etc. It wasn’t too bad and I further realised that because I was trying to run the business reasonably professionally the demands of BAFRA were not a foreign language; because they are a professional body run for the benefit of me and my customers. That was quite reassuring because seeing all the criteria written out is pretty formidable at first. Strangely, having it all in black and white almost immediately had an impact on the way I did things in the workshop.
Notification eventually came with the promise of a mid-week visit from the assessor. There may have been a certain amount of sweeping up and dusting off, but I thought that seeing the workshop in something like its normal state would give a better idea of the way I work and make me feel more comfortable. From what BAFRA had sent, I knew that the day would be divided between looking at my business and assessing my skills as a restorer. I had collected finished pieces and work in progress and more or less put chisels and planes where they ought to be. The paperwork from my business seemed to cover an extraordinary amount of bench space and this gave the assessor some documentary evidence regarding the way I conduct my business. It consisted of insurance documents, security certificates, copy invoices and other bits of paper that hadn’t seen the light of day for some time.
The assessor arrived, and if I could ever imagine what an assessor should look like, he was it – he was friendly but certainly knew exactly what he was talking about. I knew roughly what questions I was going to be asked, and I suppose I had mentally prepared my replies, but meeting someone so experienced in the field put one on one’s metal because he seemed to sniff out any area where I might have a weakness. Admittedly, this was the first time that I had spoken at length and in depth to anyone at the very top of our profession. However, the fact that we were dealing with a mutual interest saved the day from being too uncomfortable. I won’t run through every detail of an assessment, because these are easily available to all, but there was an interesting moment while we were talking about various historic topics. You can imagine that I had spent the previous weeks with my head stuck even deeper in any book which even hinted at the history of English furniture. In doing so I realised that perhaps I had neglected certain continental influences when the assessor asked me what I knew of the work of Daniel Marot. Even the lifelines he was throwing me couldn’t quite get out what I knew I should know, in fact the only thing I could remember about this fabulous maker/designer was the excessive ornament which I didn’t find particularly appealing. This is the trouble with DIY self-education – you tend to concentrate on what you like instead of gaining a comprehensive background, which you can get at college.
The day was quite unique and one I shall never forget, and I knew from having met the assessor was that I certainly did want to be a member of BAFRA. After what seemed an age, the dreaded letter arrived and offered another lifeline. It appeared that in general things weren’t too bad, but that my knowledge and standard of wood finishing was not all that it should be. The committee felt that should I agree to attend a course on the topic with one of BAFRA’s accredited members, and my work found satisfactory, they would consider my suitability to become a full member. I have not named those that I met in my first encounters with BAFRA, but can’t resist saying that the course most suitable for me was one of those run by Gerald Langley. I would hardly dare to suggest it, but I think anyone entering BAFRA would benefit enormously by spending some working time with one of the accredited members. The way that Gerald shared his skills in polishing and finishing plus the unending conversations on all topics dealing with furniture made for a most memorable week. He kindly informed me and BAFRA that I had performed reasonably well so I was in – and I didn’t even buy him a pint!
Life after the assessment has been pretty good. The fund of experience and knowledge which becomes available is unimaginable, and if you have a problem you just have to pick up the phone. Consolidation – the method of conserving poor but original timber and a technique for bleaching new rosewood are just a couple of things I have learned. BAFRA is a very supportive organisation. The comprehensive suppliers list is a revelation and I have picked up work through being an accredited member – not from Head Office but through another Suffolk member and potential clients asking Bonhams, the V&A and Ipswich Library for a restorer and being referred to our annual Guide. So now I can’t even complain about the BAFRA subscription. It costs nothing to find out about assessment and for me it has been a very positive move.

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ANALYSIS AND RESTORATION OF AN ITALIAN CASSONE C. 1400

ANALYSIS AND RESTORATION OF AN ITALIAN CASSONE C. 1400
By Richard Higgins

The Renaissance was the great period of the Italian Cassone but the form continued to be made even into the 19th Century. Many examples exist of elaborately carved wood, sometimes inlaid with painted panels. Others, like this piece from Sienna and probably dating from around 1400, were constructed in fruitwood and overlaid with raised gesso patterns, some of which were highlighted with polychromed and occasionally gilded decoration. Depictions of military heroes or religious themes were prevalent.
The quality of craftsmanship evident in this piece has obviously contributed to its remarkable state of preservation and, with the exception of the lid, there is only superficial degradation of the gesso rather than large areas of loss and delamination. Gesso made from calcium sulphate was the standard preparation for Italian panels during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and the method of applying it is famously described by Cennino Cennini in his fourteenth century handbook for painters. According to his instructions, the first coat should be ‘gesso grosso’ made from unprocessed calcium sulphate, but the final coats should be ‘gesso sottile’ i.e. using calcium sulphate that was first heated to produce the hemi-hydrate from, then slaked in copious water to form a precipitate of fine particled dihydrate.
The cassone is structurally fairly sound. The back left hand foot is loose and should be secured. Much of the timber around the base is worm damaged but none of the infestation is active. The convex lid has obviously split badly in the past and been filled with an unknown resin. Although somewhat unsightly, this is sound and serves to stabilise effectively the timbers of the lid. The convex surface has at some point started to flatten out and as such is coming away from its side members, particularly at the front. Unless environmental conditions alter radically, then further movement is improbable. Trying to reverse this condition is very likely to cause other damage to the lid and I would therefore recommend that the existing gaps that are evident be accepted as part of the overall character of the piece. It is unfortunate that, because of this movement and extensive worm attack, the vast majority of applied decoration to the lid has been lost.
The cassone is decorated with raised geometric patterns surrounding shields, guarded by winged beasts and the whole is enclosed by a Latin inscription of The Lords Prayer. The background has been textured and patterned using tools to produce tiny crosses and small circles. Unfortunately, the original gilded and coloured decoration has been lost and the cassone over-painted at a much later date with a thin layer of red brown pigment. There is an extensive fungal growth of a cloudy white appearance over the surface of the gesso which has arisen from adverse environmental conditions. Whilst this is fairly firmly attached to the brown paint, it has not yet penetrated deeply into the composition of the gesso.
ANALYSIS
Five tiny samples of the surface were taken, mounted in resin and cut and polished as a cross-section. Paint from the upper layers and ground layers was dispersed on glass slides and the pigments identified by polarised light microscopy at magnification x 1000. The identity of the metal leaf of sample 1 and the ground layers of sample 3 was confirmed by X-ray analysis using a scanning electron microscope. A chemical test for lead was carried out on sample 3.
Ground
This is calcium sulphate laid on in two or three thick applications of ‘gesso’ and the craftsmen appear to have followed Cennini’s general rule, as the first gesso layer is coarse and made up of large fibrous crystals of dihydrate, while the upper gesso layers are compact and the crystals are very fine. The ground layers are compact and appear to be richly bound with animal glue. The high ratio of glue to calcium sulphate may be partly responsible for the cupping and cracking.
Paint Layers
Two of the five samples are missing the original paint layer, samples 1, 2 and 3 on the other hand, have the remains of seriously degraded decoration which is probably original.
Sample 1 shows the remains of silver leaf over a preparatory layer of reddish clay. The silver probably once had a coloured glaze over the top. The glaze is now dark brown and the metallic leaf has oxidised to black silver oxide.
Sample 2 has the same red clay as in sample 1, however there is no metal leaf visible.
Sample 3 contains particles of a lead pigment - either lead white or lead tin yellow - suspended in a translucent brown oil layer which may once have been coloured. The lead pigment has degraded, forming a grey layer on the outer surface; it has probably been reduced to lead sulphide.
Samples 4 and 5 retain no trace of the early decorative finish, but the gesso layers are the same.
Restoration
Over the top of sample 1 is a coat of red/brown paint. This is resting over degraded varnish and therefore cannot be original. The pigment is an iron oxide of natural origin, of which we are unable to determine the date..
Conclusion
The ground, and the surviving decoration in three of the samples have all the characteristics of genuinely old paint that has suffered badly over time.
CONSERVATION
It was decided that the three main aims of conservation treatment were:
To remove fungal growth from the surface and to treat the piece throughout with a fungicidal agent in order to kill any spores and prevent re-infestation.
To introduce a consolidant into the network of cracks and fissures in order to ‘shore up’ the more fragile gesso beneath to prevent future losses.
To monitor its environment in order to establish whether conditions are suitable to reintroduce the piece without danger of damage and to advise on any changes necessary.
Treatment
The only structural work undertaken was to secure the back left hand foot which was loose using traditional scotch animal glue. Surfaces were cleaned prior to gluing using a water based gel.It was necessary to use a fungicidal agent which was not water based as this would cause extensive damage to both the overpaint and the gesso and animal glue. The treatment, however, would need to have a low viscosity in order to penetrate below the surface. We applied IMS (95% ethanol: 5% methanol) with cotton wool swabs which would instantly kill mould spores, flow into surface cracks and evaporate quickly without leaving harmful chemical residues. The entire surface and interior was treated and the growth removed. A surprisingly small amount of surface dirt came away.
Subsequently a dilute mixture of paraloid B72 crystals, (B72 20%: Propanone 70%: IMS 10%) was prepared for consolidation of the gesso. Using the same method of application, the brown surface was then wiped down with Propanone/IMS during the process to leave it free of consolidant. Paraloid was chosen because it is easily removable using its carrying agent so that, should future conservators wish to carry out further excavations of the painted surface, they can do so easily and without damage.
Finally, a light coating of microcrystalline wax was applied in order to further protect the surface and revive the red/brown pigment.
We have not been instructed at this stage to remove the later red/brown paint, of which we are unable to establish the date, but on consideration of the analysis results we would not recommend that this be done. Areas where the colour is worn away reveal medieval material, although any remaining original pigments and metal leaf are so degraded that no discernible colours or design would be apparent were it to be totally removed. Although quite contrary to the original gilded and polychromed surface, the water soluble red/brown paint is deemed aesthetically acceptable.
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
The environment of the Chapel at Wenlock Priory was monitored for a three month period between 17th March 1999 and 16th May 1999. Light levels are always low and as such it was not deemed necessary to measure these over an extended period. Sensors for both temperature and relative humidity (RH) were located on the floor immediately beneath, inside and on top of the cassone.
Readings from all three sets of monitors were remarkably similar, which would indicate that the variations in temperature and particularly RH were most dependent upon prevailing atmospheric conditions rather than problems such as damp rising through the floor. If the graphs displaying the readings, which were taken and recorded every 44 minutes, are examined closely, it will be evident also that temperature and RH are fluctuating in line with each other, rather than a change in temperature having an opposite effect upon the RH as one might expect if there were temperature fluctuations caused by the switching on or off of central heating. This would further suggest that the local environmental changes are due to the ambient climactic variation. That being said, we do at times see the RH rising to the 75% region which, if held there for any prolonged length of time, is likely to promote fungal growths.
Given that the Chapel contains other gessoed items, I would recommend that an attempt is made to prevent the RH rising above 65%, (60% would be an ideal upper limit but pragmatism being taken into account would make 65% an acceptable and more realistic limit to achieve). The lower RH recorded of approximately 50% will not cause any problems at all. I would recommend that the simplest and most likely way to achieve the limiting of the highest point in RH is to introduce into the chapel an electrically powered oil filled radiator, controlled with a hydrostat set to operate at 65% RH. Running costs would be relatively low as it would only come into operation for the short periods when the RH rises.

ANALYSIS AND RESTORATION OF AN ITALIAN CASSONE C. 1400

ANALYSIS AND RESTORATION OF AN ITALIAN CASSONE C. 1400
By Richard Higgins

The Renaissance was the great period of the Italian Cassone but the form continued to be made even into the 19th Century. Many examples exist of elaborately carved wood, sometimes inlaid with painted panels. Others, like this piece from Sienna and probably dating from around 1400, were constructed in fruitwood and overlaid with raised gesso patterns, some of which were highlighted with polychromed and occasionally gilded decoration. Depictions of military heroes or religious themes were prevalent.
The quality of craftsmanship evident in this piece has obviously contributed to its remarkable state of preservation and, with the exception of the lid, there is only superficial degradation of the gesso rather than large areas of loss and delamination. Gesso made from calcium sulphate was the standard preparation for Italian panels during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and the method of applying it is famously described by Cennino Cennini in his fourteenth century handbook for painters. According to his instructions, the first coat should be ‘gesso grosso’ made from unprocessed calcium sulphate, but the final coats should be ‘gesso sottile’ i.e. using calcium sulphate that was first heated to produce the hemi-hydrate from, then slaked in copious water to form a precipitate of fine particled dihydrate.
The cassone is structurally fairly sound. The back left hand foot is loose and should be secured. Much of the timber around the base is worm damaged but none of the infestation is active. The convex lid has obviously split badly in the past and been filled with an unknown resin. Although somewhat unsightly, this is sound and serves to stabilise effectively the timbers of the lid. The convex surface has at some point started to flatten out and as such is coming away from its side members, particularly at the front. Unless environmental conditions alter radically, then further movement is improbable. Trying to reverse this condition is very likely to cause other damage to the lid and I would therefore recommend that the existing gaps that are evident be accepted as part of the overall character of the piece. It is unfortunate that, because of this movement and extensive worm attack, the vast majority of applied decoration to the lid has been lost.
The cassone is decorated with raised geometric patterns surrounding shields, guarded by winged beasts and the whole is enclosed by a Latin inscription of The Lords Prayer. The background has been textured and patterned using tools to produce tiny crosses and small circles. Unfortunately, the original gilded and coloured decoration has been lost and the cassone over-painted at a much later date with a thin layer of red brown pigment. There is an extensive fungal growth of a cloudy white appearance over the surface of the gesso which has arisen from adverse environmental conditions. Whilst this is fairly firmly attached to the brown paint, it has not yet penetrated deeply into the composition of the gesso.
ANALYSIS
Five tiny samples of the surface were taken, mounted in resin and cut and polished as a cross-section. Paint from the upper layers and ground layers was dispersed on glass slides and the pigments identified by polarised light microscopy at magnification x 1000. The identity of the metal leaf of sample 1 and the ground layers of sample 3 was confirmed by X-ray analysis using a scanning electron microscope. A chemical test for lead was carried out on sample 3.
Ground
This is calcium sulphate laid on in two or three thick applications of ‘gesso’ and the craftsmen appear to have followed Cennini’s general rule, as the first gesso layer is coarse and made up of large fibrous crystals of dihydrate, while the upper gesso layers are compact and the crystals are very fine. The ground layers are compact and appear to be richly bound with animal glue. The high ratio of glue to calcium sulphate may be partly responsible for the cupping and cracking.
Paint Layers
Two of the five samples are missing the original paint layer, samples 1, 2 and 3 on the other hand, have the remains of seriously degraded decoration which is probably original.
Sample 1 shows the remains of silver leaf over a preparatory layer of reddish clay. The silver probably once had a coloured glaze over the top. The glaze is now dark brown and the metallic leaf has oxidised to black silver oxide.
Sample 2 has the same red clay as in sample 1, however there is no metal leaf visible.
Sample 3 contains particles of a lead pigment - either lead white or lead tin yellow - suspended in a translucent brown oil layer which may once have been coloured. The lead pigment has degraded, forming a grey layer on the outer surface; it has probably been reduced to lead sulphide.
Samples 4 and 5 retain no trace of the early decorative finish, but the gesso layers are the same.
Restoration
Over the top of sample 1 is a coat of red/brown paint. This is resting over degraded varnish and therefore cannot be original. The pigment is an iron oxide of natural origin, of which we are unable to determine the date..
Conclusion
The ground, and the surviving decoration in three of the samples have all the characteristics of genuinely old paint that has suffered badly over time.
CONSERVATION
It was decided that the three main aims of conservation treatment were:
To remove fungal growth from the surface and to treat the piece throughout with a fungicidal agent in order to kill any spores and prevent re-infestation.
To introduce a consolidant into the network of cracks and fissures in order to ‘shore up’ the more fragile gesso beneath to prevent future losses.
To monitor its environment in order to establish whether conditions are suitable to reintroduce the piece without danger of damage and to advise on any changes necessary.
Treatment
The only structural work undertaken was to secure the back left hand foot which was loose using traditional scotch animal glue. Surfaces were cleaned prior to gluing using a water based gel.It was necessary to use a fungicidal agent which was not water based as this would cause extensive damage to both the overpaint and the gesso and animal glue. The treatment, however, would need to have a low viscosity in order to penetrate below the surface. We applied IMS (95% ethanol: 5% methanol) with cotton wool swabs which would instantly kill mould spores, flow into surface cracks and evaporate quickly without leaving harmful chemical residues. The entire surface and interior was treated and the growth removed. A surprisingly small amount of surface dirt came away.
Subsequently a dilute mixture of paraloid B72 crystals, (B72 20%: Propanone 70%: IMS 10%) was prepared for consolidation of the gesso. Using the same method of application, the brown surface was then wiped down with Propanone/IMS during the process to leave it free of consolidant. Paraloid was chosen because it is easily removable using its carrying agent so that, should future conservators wish to carry out further excavations of the painted surface, they can do so easily and without damage.
Finally, a light coating of microcrystalline wax was applied in order to further protect the surface and revive the red/brown pigment.
We have not been instructed at this stage to remove the later red/brown paint, of which we are unable to establish the date, but on consideration of the analysis results we would not recommend that this be done. Areas where the colour is worn away reveal medieval material, although any remaining original pigments and metal leaf are so degraded that no discernible colours or design would be apparent were it to be totally removed. Although quite contrary to the original gilded and polychromed surface, the water soluble red/brown paint is deemed aesthetically acceptable.
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
The environment of the Chapel at Wenlock Priory was monitored for a three month period between 17th March 1999 and 16th May 1999. Light levels are always low and as such it was not deemed necessary to measure these over an extended period. Sensors for both temperature and relative humidity (RH) were located on the floor immediately beneath, inside and on top of the cassone.
Readings from all three sets of monitors were remarkably similar, which would indicate that the variations in temperature and particularly RH were most dependent upon prevailing atmospheric conditions rather than problems such as damp rising through the floor. If the graphs displaying the readings, which were taken and recorded every 44 minutes, are examined closely, it will be evident also that temperature and RH are fluctuating in line with each other, rather than a change in temperature having an opposite effect upon the RH as one might expect if there were temperature fluctuations caused by the switching on or off of central heating. This would further suggest that the local environmental changes are due to the ambient climactic variation. That being said, we do at times see the RH rising to the 75% region which, if held there for any prolonged length of time, is likely to promote fungal growths.
Given that the Chapel contains other gessoed items, I would recommend that an attempt is made to prevent the RH rising above 65%, (60% would be an ideal upper limit but pragmatism being taken into account would make 65% an acceptable and more realistic limit to achieve). The lower RH recorded of approximately 50% will not cause any problems at all. I would recommend that the simplest and most likely way to achieve the limiting of the highest point in RH is to introduce into the chapel an electrically powered oil filled radiator, controlled with a hydrostat set to operate at 65% RH. Running costs would be relatively low as it would only come into operation for the short periods when the RH rises.

RESTORATION OF A SEVENTEENTH CENTURY INDIAN IVORY INLAID CABINET TABLE

RESTORATION OF A SEVENTEENTH CENTURY INDIAN

IVORY INLAID CABINET TABLE

y Peter Brazier

"This 5mm square of pattern was a mix of no less than 15 pieces of different sized ivory and wood arranged in a specific manner. It was barely discernible to the human eye."
This cabinet, which was approximately 30" x 20" x 20" with a fall and small drawers inside, came to us for restoration.
Inspection showed the carcass was split in several places and the end joints had significantly moved. Not surprisingly it was apparent that over the years it had been repaired, sometimes well but frequently indifferently. The lock on the fall was a replacement, a smaller till lock, and the carrying handles were cheap modern wrought iron ones. Unusually in a cabinet of this origin, all the inlaid surfaces except for part of the back were covered in a relatively thick veneer. There was an immense amount of inlay missing and much of what remained was not secure and was curling up. A great amount of the banding was missing and the outer row had been completely removed and replaced by veneer.
Banding
The extent of the restoration needed made this a challenge in itself but the repair and replacement of the banding in a cost-effective manner was daunting. The banding was of a Tonbridge Ware type pattern enclosed between ivory and ebony stringing. No less than 7Oft of this banding needed making up in two different patterns! The internal pattern was only 5mm wide and the pattern repeated itself every 5mm. This 5mm square of pattern was a mix of no less than 15 pieces of different sized ivory and wood arranged in a specific manner. It was barely discernible to the human eye.
It was photographed with a digital camera and greatly enlarged. This enabled us to see that down the length of the banding the pieces were all of uniform width however across the banding they were alternately single and double sized.
Before starting the work we turned to the engineering trade and bought two 6" slitting saw blades which were about 1 1/2 mm thick. These we had ground down to 0.4mm thick. As so much banding was needed it was essential to reduce the waste of ivory to a minimum by using the finest saw blade. We also had a mild steel gluing jig made up. The side and top were tightened on threads and came up on steel stops. Each 5mm x 5mm "pattern" was made up in 12-inch lengths. After the jig was tightened the whole was placed in a low oven (70 deg.) so the excess glue could flow freely out of the perforated drain holes at the top and bottom of the jig.
When several lengths had been made they were side glued together and then "bacon sliced" off and the slivers glued up between the outer stringing. The jig proved of enormous value as everything came out precisely to size and the banding was relatively quickly assembled.
Carcass
Before work could be started on repairing and replacing the ivory inlay, the carcass had to be repaired.
The corner joints were injected with glue and many of the wooden pegs which had failed in shear, were replaced. Then splines were carefully shaped precisely to fill the splits in the carcass. Several areas where the veneer cladding was completely missing were made good as well as those edges of the cabinet, which had been split away.
Ivory Inlay
All the ivory was calibrated for thickness by gluing temporarily onto boards and passing through a thickness sander. Before any new inlay was applied much of the existing inlay had to be removed, flattened where necessary and the cavity cleaned out before re-laying. All the missing motifs were cut out to size in packs of three with a Hegner saw, then fitted; using the finest blades, three were found to be all it could handle. Motifs, which were incomplete, were repaired. Just under 900 pieces of ivory alone had to be cut out, fitted and applied! When completed the missing banding already made up to length was similarly applied. All the replacement ivory and wood had then to be scrapped down to a true surface avoiding the old ivory motifs, which were engraved. Only then were the replacements engraved themselves. The outer moulding was then re-worked around the edge of the cabinet. Finally the whole piece was given a rubber of shellac and waxed up.
Hardware
A new lock was fabricated to fit the original pin position and back plate. We cast suitable contemporary handles and had them and the lock plate silver-plated. The fixing of the handles presented us with a particular difficulty. Originally the pommels would have been either of the strap variety, bent over and nailed inside or more likely made from half round bar and squeezed together inside the cabinet, having previously been threaded and then hove up on a nut and the surplus cut off. We could not do this without removing the whole inside of the cabinet. How we overcame the problem was to make up solid pommels, cut exactly to length and bolted inside; even this was not easy. The handles we cast without the conical pieces on the end, thus allowing the handle ends to pass through the pommels.
The end pieces were then hove up on threads which had already been drilled and tapped as we could not silver solder them without destroying the silver plating.

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CARE OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE - ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

CARE OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE - ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
By Valerie Taplin, Air Improvement Centre

The following text is reprinted from the Air Improvement Centre antique care leaflet. Copies are available, free of charge.
Much of the damage to furniture has been caused by central heating dryness, and it makes sense to suggest that the client installs a humidifier, preferably before the restored piece is returned home. Occasionally, there is the opposite problem of excessive dampness, especially in unheated premises, or storage areas.

HOW TO PROTECT IT FROM THE RAVAGES OF CENTRAL HEATING SITING
Furniture should never be placed directly in front of a radiator. It should ideally be at least two feet from any heat source. If a piece of furniture really has to be placed near a radiator, a possible compromise would be to devise an insulating protective ‘barrier’. This could take the form of a decorative fire screen with an insulated/reflective backing.
A humidifier can be sited anywhere in the room near an electric socket, but not under a piece of furniture or in front of a fireplace or open chimney. A good position would be behind a sofa, and in front of a radiator, so it is hidden from view but the rising heat helps circulate moisture in the convection currents. Most house plants relish additional humidity, and can be used to hide the humidifier. Some interior designers have come up with ingenious ways of concealing a very functional humidifier within an aesthetically-pleasing cabinet.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Antique furniture needs protection from low levels of relative humidity caused by central heating. Without humidification the relative humidity may well fall to dangerously low levels of 25-30% rH which is close to that in the Sahara Desert.
USE A HUMIDIFIER IF YOU HAVE CENTRAL HEATING
Prevention is always better than cure. It is possible to safeguard antique furniture from dry air damage by investing in a good humidifier which will help maintain a constant level of relative humidity in the air during winter heating. Simply placing a bowl of water or a pot plant near a piece of antique furniture is of little value in protecting it from the effects of central heating. For a normal comfortable indoor temperature of 70ºF, aim to maintain 50-55% relative humidity.
Electric Humidifiers
The choice of humidifier depends on room size and purpose. It is important to get specialist advice on the most suitable model.
Humidifiers incorporate a safety cut-out to switch off automatically should you forget to refill. They are also silent, completely hygienic, and simple to use. They are suitable for use with hard water, and need only to be descaled periodically as for a kettle.
Different Features and Types of Humidifiers
Electric humidifiers operate by various different principles, each with different features:-
Steam evaporation - Produces gentle, warm, visible steam. Silent (no moving parts). Hygienic (sterile in operation), good moisture distribution. Easy to clean. No filters to change. Suitable for hard or soft water.
Fan-assisted evaporation - Produces cool, invisible moisture. Motor noise. Regular cleaning essential to avoid stagnation. Need filters changed regularly.
Ultrasonic/atomisation - Produces jet of visible cold mist. Humming noise. White chalk dust deposits on surrounding surfaces. Localised effect. Needs water softening cartridges changed regularly. Use distilled or very soft water.
N.B. For Health/Medical Use:
Steam evaporation humidifiers (such as Turmix) are the only ones which are completely silent and suitable for use in nurseries, bedrooms and sitting rooms (no moving parts, no ultrasonic humming). The Turmix also holds enough water to last right through the night (safety cut-out).
They are also suitable for use in hard water areas. Any minerals in the water are left behind in the water tank, which needs to be descaled periodically (as with a kettle). Only pure water vapour is produced into the room (unlike with ultrasonic and atomisation humidifiers which spray a fine film of white chalk dust onto surrounding surfaces).
Similarly, because the steam has been heated, it is completely hygienic - the gentle warm steam from the Turmix 200 is frequently used for inhalation to ease congestion (with eucalyptus or tea tree) or aromatherapy (with lavender or camomile etc. which are calming and soothing).
Non-Electric Humidifiers
If you prefer non-electric humidifiers, use a large capacity hang-on radiator humidifier. These should be used on all radiators in the rooms concerned.
Such humidifiers can be hidden within radiator housings. The front of the housing needs to be hinged to allow easy access for daily filling.
You cannot over-humidify with these non-electric humidifiers. To get the best output, use the largest size that your radiator can accommodate and remember to fill daily. Essential oils can be added if desired.
Hygrometers
Be sure to use a hygrometer to check that the relative humidity stays in the region of 50-55%.

Info coppied from

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REUPHOLSTERY OF ANTIQUE SEAT FURNITURE

REUPHOLSTERY OF ANTIQUE SEAT FURNITURE
By Bert Chapman MBE

...and the tacks or staples controversy!
"What on earth am I going to do with this?" is often the cry of an upholsterer confronted with a rather down-at-heel looking piece of seat furniture, obviously of some age, and a client whose wishes are that the item is to be used regularly.
It is assumed that the upholsterer, in addition to his upholstery skills, has an understanding of the upholstery techniques and profiles of the varying styles of upholstered furniture from the 16th century to the present day.
The purpose of this article is to set out the methods we do use. I do not claim they are the only method, or the best method, but they do fulfil the following criteria.
The wishes of the client.
Pictorial record of the treatment.
The reinstatement of the piece with any original stuffing preserved.
The profiles of the upholstery accord with the style of the piece.
The least damage to the frame.
Chair circa 1827 with collapsed upholstery.
Having recorded instructions from the client and before commencement of any work, it is of the utmost importance that the chair is photographed from all angles, for future reference if required, and as part of the before and after record. The removal of each layer of cover is photographed and the sequence of the covers (this could be two or three) carefully recorded and retained. Each layer of upholstery must also be photographed with particular attention to the manner of the stitching.
The type of webbing and colour can also be significant and must be photographed. At this stage it is easy to discern whether or not the upholstery is the original by the number of tack holes in the frame. More often than not the tacking section of the rails are full of tack holes and are dry and brittle, but nevertheless there still may be parts of the stuffing that are original and are worth preserving in the restored piece.
The frame is the most important part of the chair and as aforementioned, the tacking sections of the rails are generally in poor condition and need treatment before re-upholstery can commence. Whether the tacking section of the rail is replaced or built up with sawdust and glue is a decision that needs to be taken in consultation with, or undertaken by, a competent furniture restorer.
The upholsterer at this stage must have a complete picture in his mind of how the finished piece should look, taking into account the age and style of the frame and the profile of the upholstery that conforms to that style.
Tacks or staples?
To many people the use of staples in antique furniture is unthinkable; I will confess at once that I am not of this school of thought and providing I can gain the acquiescence of the client, I advocate their use at very stage for the following reasons.
They cause much less damage to the frame:
two tiny pinholes
one hit and they are home
because the staple gun is placed in position before firing, there can be no damage to the gilded or polished show wood.
Staples can be easily removed
By hand, using a staple remover and pliers. No jarring of the frame by the use of mallet and chisel.
Placing well-spaced staples at an angle, the staple remover can be inserted without damaging the show wood.
We are not trying to prove that the upholstery is anything other than a 21st century reconstruction.


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